Child Marriage In Urban Area - Communication Research

Child Marriage In Urban Area

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

· Submitted by:

· Sifat Nusrat - 181012048

· Krishna Gopal Basak - 181012015

· Department: Media Studies and Journalism

· Course: Communication Research

· Course Code: MSJ11102 (section 03)

· Submitted to: Nandita Tabassum

· Date: 12th Sep 2018

Child Marriage In Urban Area

1. Introduction

Bangladesh’s socio-cultural environment contains pervasive gender discrimination, so girls and women face many obstacles to their development. Girls are often considered to be financial burdens on their family, and from the time of birth, they receive less investment in their health, care and education. With the advent of puberty, differences in the ways that adolescent girls and boys are treated become much more pronounced. Adolescence is not viewed as a distinct phase of life; instead the onset of physical maturity is seen as an abrupt shift from childhood to adulthood. At puberty, girls’ mobility is often restricted, which limits their access to livelihood, learning and recreational and social activities. Bangladesh’s rates of child marriage and adolescent motherhood are among the highest in the world. Maternal mortality rates also remain extremely high. Poor maternal health is the result of early marriage, women’s malnutrition, a lack of access to and use of medical services and a lack of knowledge and information. Most women give birth without a skilled attendant. In the home, women’s mobility is greatly limited and their decision-making power is often restricted. For instance, about 48 per cent of Bangladeshi women say that their husbands alone make decisions about their health, while 35 per cent say that their husbands alone make decisions regarding visits to family and friends(UNICEF, State of the World’s Children: The Double Dividend of Gender Equality, 2007)

Violence against women is another major impediment to women’s development.



2. Background Of Study

Child marriage not only happen at rural area. Now a days it's a common and major problem in urban area also. Last few years many of school girls are get married. The practice of arranging child marriages remains common, especially in rural areas and in urban slums, where many families believe that the onset of puberty signifies readiness for marriage. Although the practice is illegal, it is common for the bride’s family to pay a dowry to the family of the groom. There is evidence that the practice of dowry is becoming more common .In one study, women aged 46-60 reported that dowry was practically non-existent when they married, while 46% of women aged 15-25 reported that they had to pay dowry. (World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh, March 2008)

3. Research Question

Ø Is Child Marriage decreasing or we are not getting any information because no case were filed??
Ø if yes then why we are not getting any information??




4. Literature Review

Child marriage

While the practice of child marriage has decreased in Bangladesh over the last 30 years, it remains common in rural areas and urban slums, especially among the poor. The legal age of marriage is 18 for girls, however three-quarters of women aged 20-49 were married before age 18(UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2006, Bangladesh 2007). The practice of arranging child marriages remains common, especially in rural areas and in urban slums, where many families believe that the onset of puberty signifies readiness for marriage. Although the practice is illegal, it is common for the bride’s family to pay a dowry to the family of the groom. There is evidence that the practice of dowry is becoming more common .In one study, women aged 46-60 reported that dowry was practically non-existent when they married, while 46% of women aged 15-25 reported that they had to pay dowry (World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh, March 2008). Dowry paying is more common in poorer sections of society, and it also reinforces poverty because it often renders families destitute. Despite the cost of dowry, poorer families consider early marriage financially beneficial dowry generally increases as girls become older and more expensive. Early marriage also relieves families of caring for their daughters, because they live with their husband’s family once married. But early marriage threatens girls’ education, mobility, health and safety. A child bride usually drops out of school and begins full time work in the home of her husband’s parents, where she often lacks bargaining power and may be reduced to the status of a bonded labourer. Adolescent brides are often much younger than their husbands, since men are not considered ready to marry until they have some financial independence. This reduces equality in the marriage, has a negative effect on the life chances of girls, and increases the probability that they will be widowed. In a strictly patriarchal society like Bangladesh, being without a male protector and provider can render women vulnerable to abuse and isolation from the community.



Motherhood

Bangladesh’s maternal mortality ratio is one of the highest in the region. Government figures estimate that there are 320 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births (National Institute of Population and Research Training, Bangladesh Maternal Health and Maternal Mortality

Survey (BMMS) 2001¸ Dhaka 2003.), however UN estimates place the rate as high as 570 deaths per 100,000 live births (UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, November 2009). The prevalence of unattended home births, the high rate of births to adolescent girls, and malnourishment are the main contributors to the high maternal mortality rate. A woman’s lifetime risk of dying in pregnancy or childbirth is one in 51, compared to one in 47,600 in Ireland (the best performer) (ibid). About 12,000 women die every year from pregnancy or childbirth complications (Government of Bangladesh, Millennium Development Goals: Bangladesh Progress Report 2008). Bangladesh also has one of the world’s highest rates of adolescent motherhood. One in three women starts childbearing before age 20(National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2007, March 2009). While the number of births to adolescent mothers has reduced by almost one quarter in the past 18 years, the pace of decline is very slow, and adolescent motherhood remains common in rural areas (Sample Vital Registration System 2008). Young motherhood is associated with several risks such as higher maternal mortality rates, pregnancy complications and low birthweight babies. Patriarchal norms and structures make it difficult for women, and particularly younger women, to refuse sex or insist on using birth control. They are thus exposed to premature pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Maternal health and mortality is linked with women’s low status in the household and their restricted mobility. Many women are denied freedom to seek help at a hospital or health center because their husbands or husband’s family make the decisions about their health care. Despite an increase in health facilities nationally, 85 per cent of deliveries still take place at home (UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, special edition, November 2009) and less than a quarter of births are attended by skilled health personnel (UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2009, Bangladesh 2010) (some women use skilled birth attendants at home). The coverage of antenatal care among pregnant women is low and only 21 per cent have four antenatal care visits, as recommended by WHO. (National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2007, March 2009)



Violence against women

Domestic violence is a pervasive problem in Bangladesh and presents a huge threat to the security of girls and women. In a 2007 research study, more than half of ever-married women aged 15-49 reported that they had experienced some form of physical and/or sexual violence from their husbands, and one quarter had experienced it in the past year (National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2007, March 2009). Additionally, more than one-third of both men and women believe that men are justified in beating their wives in specific circumstances, such as arguing(ibid). The practice of dowry, a lower age at marriage, and poverty are all associated with women’s higher likelihood of experiencing and condoning violence (World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh, 2007). Adolescent girls are often victims of ‘eve teasing’ or sexual harassment and are not prepared to face such a situation. In one of its most extreme forms, violence against women takes the form of acid attacks. Although legislation exists to prevent acid attacks, enforcement remains weak. Since May 1999, there have been almost 3000 reported cases of acid throwing, the vast majority against girls and women, however many cases remain unreported. ( Acid Survivors Foundation, Bangladesh) Sadly, suicide is also common among girls aged between 14 and 17. The Bangladesh Health and Injury Survey reported that more than 2200 children, including about 1500 girls, committed suicide in 2004.





Education

Education is the key to addressing entrenched discrimination and violence against women. Research suggests that the presence of more educated children in the household and community acts as a restraint on violence against women (World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh, 2007). In addition, educated girls tend to delay marriage, are more likely to seek help during childbirth and are more likely to give birth to healthy babies who will survive and grow into adulthood. Bangladesh has made immense gains in girls’ education, such that girls now outnumber boys in primary and secondary schooling (Government of Bangladesh, Millennium Development Goals, Bangladesh Progress Report, 2008). However, net attendance rates in secondary education are still extremely low, at only 53 per cent for girls and 46 per cent for boys. (UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2009, Bangladesh 2010) In tertiary education, there are only six girls for every ten boys, well below the Millennium Development Goal target of full equality(ibid). Older women typically received much less education than men their age. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 63 per cent of men aged over 15 are literate, compared with 55 per cent of women (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Report on Sample Vital Registration System, 2008).



Violence

A rapid assessment of 675 commercially sexually exploited children and adolescents conducted in 2008 found that the number of trafficked women and children rescued has increased (from 93 persons in 2007 to 190 in 2008), while rehabilitation efforts are also increasing (from 104 in 2007 to 207 in 2008) ( UNICEF and INCIDIN, Rapid Assessment: Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents in Bangladesh, 2008). This highlight increasing social awareness of trafficking and sexual exploitation of women in Bangladesh.
National Helpline Centre Success for Violence against Women and Children



01.Tania gets relief from early child marriage.

20th June 2012

Tania is the daughter of Md. Taiab Ali. She lives at Shagata upizila in Gaibandha. Tania is a student of class six. Due to the poverty her father arranges marriage on 20th June 2012 at about 7:00 pm. A person of that area call to the National Helpline Center for Violence Against Women and Children and seeking help to protect the child marriage. Within the short duration the officer of the helpline centre inform the issue to the Upazilla Women Affairs officer to investigate the raising issue and to take initiative on this regards. The helpline centre officer also informs the OC, Upazilla Nirbahi Officer, Addl. Police Super about this. Addl. Police Super took it seriously and assures to take initiative immediately in this regard. After that Upazillla woman affairs officer, OC, UP Chairmen, and the Headmaster of the school went to Tania’s house and took sign a form from Tania and her father. In this way Tania gets relief from child marriage. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



02. Helpline protected a child life

19th July 2012

Shafin is the student of a primary school in class nursery in Dhaka. Shafins grandfather called to National helpline centre on 19/07/2012 at 11.30 am and inform us that an unknown person threats him that when they leave the school, he will kill the child. He wants to know what they should do at that moment. At first the officer of Helpline centre talk with the admin section of the school and ensure his studentship. Then helpline centre called to the director and the principal of that institution. After being confirm Helpline Centre finally called to the Officer in charge (OC) of that Thana and then OC sent the Police force to give security to Shafin. Thus because of calling to the National Helpline centre Shafin and his grandfather reached their home safely. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )





03. Helpline safe school girl from blackmailing

25th July 2012

A schoolgirl Tuli went to the studio to take photo with her three friends at Taragang Upazilla in Rangpur. The proprietor of that studio threats her that he will make this photo to pornography and spread this picture to the internet and mobile phone. Then the victim called to the National Helpline Centre and complained regarding this issue. She also said that if we do not take any action within 24 hours, she will commit suicide. Then helpline centre contact the concern UNO, UWAO, OC etc. The UNO asked to the OC to rescue that picture. Finally, OC went to that studio and asked to the proprietor. He (the proprietor) begs pardon and he promise that he will never do it again and he return the entire soft and hard copy of picture. Police took another official action. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



04. A ten years old girl named shopna was rescued

26th September, 2012

One person of “Nagorik Uddyok” which is a non government organization informed to National Helpline Centre that, few days ago a person took loan with interest from a land lord. Shopna’s father failed to return that money to the land lord and for that reason he abducted Shopna (10 years old) and confined her since last 16 days. That was against the law of child rights. Shopna’s father prayed for help to the helpline centre. After hearing the description, the officer of helpline centre discussed this matter with the police officer of Savar. Then the OC sent police force and rescue Shopna. Thus Shopna was rescued with the help of national helpline centre. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



05. Rescued Porn Pictures

30th September 2012

A girl named Chadni lives in Karimganj Upazilla under Kishorgonj District. A boy used to tease her and one day abducted her and took some nude pictures. After that, he threaten her if she will not marry him, he will spread all the pictures through internet. In 30th September, 2012 Chadni’s brother informed this incident to the helpline centre. After getting the news the officer of helpline centre verify the news and took initiatives to save Chadni. At first the officer of helpline centre informed this to the UWAO and requested her to take initiatives. As it was a sensitive issue officer also informed to UNO, Chairman of that village. They contact with OC of Karimgonj Police station. After that he sent SI to the spot. In 30th September, 2012 at 10:30 PM Chariman informed that they got the pictures of Chadni and destroyed those pictures. They also made sure that these pictures will not be posted at Internet. In 1st October, 2012 UWAO told that they took the neccessary steps and said that now chadni is safe. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



06. Prevent the second marriage of husband

10th October 2012

In 10/10/2012 neighbor of the victim from Nilfamari, Joldhaka Thana informed to National Helpline Centre that a man named Mozibul is going to get married without the permission of his first wife. His wife’s name is Sultana. She belongs to a Hindu Family. After marriage she changed her religion. Now Mozibul is going to bring another wife without his first wife’s consent. After getting this information, officer of Helpline centre informed to UWAO, UNO, and OC. They verify the news and make sure that they will take proper initiatives. In 11th October, 2012 the Chairman of that village said that they stopped the marriage and send his first wife back to the home. (National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



07. Justice to Parveen

14th October 2012

Perveen is a day laborer. She is 30 years old. She discussed her problem with the officer of helpline centre over phone in 14th October. She lives in Narayangonj, Thana Rupgonj. Her neighbor named Monir (35 years old). They both wanted to cook in the same kitchen and for that reason they were engaged in a quarrel. At one stage Monir beated Parveen. Officer of helpline centre discussed this matter with Ward Counselor and requested to take proper initiatives. In 16th Octobor Ward Counselor said to helpline centre that the news was authentic. Then they called for a Salish. Parveen got the justice by in Salish. Then 21st October Parveen informed helpline centre that she got the justice and thanked to helpline centre. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



08. Dulali gets relief from early child marriage

13 November, 2012

In 12/11/2012 Mahbubur Rahman from Kurigram (Thana- Roumari) called to Helpline centre and gave information about an early marriage. Bride – Dulali, Age-11,Thana- Roumari, Dis- Kurigram. She is studying in class-5 and her date of wedding is 16th November 2012. After getting the news officer of helpline centre informed UNO, UWAO, social service officer and officer in charge of police station, chairman and ward Member. They investigated the news and ensure to help to prevent this. On that day UWAO informed that they stopped that wedding successfully. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



09. Helpline rescue a housewife

22nd November, 2012

Victim’s mother called to the National Helpline Centre and complained that her daughter Shapla physically tortured by her husband in Dhaka. She informs that husband of her daughter confined her in a room. Then the officer of the National Helpline centre contacted with concern OC and he informed OC of exact police station immediately. OC of that police station sent police force and they rescued her. They also ensured to get the proper legal support. Thus Helpline rescued women. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



10. Sabina Akter gets relief from early child marriage.

20 December 2012

Sabina Akter is lives in Muradnogor, Comilla. Sabina is a student of class seven. Her father arranged marriage of her on 21st December 2012. Neighbor of her village call to the National Helpline Centre for Violence Against Women and Children and seeking help to stop the child marriage. With in the short duration the officer of the helpline centre inform the issue to Upazilla Women Affairs officer to investigate the issue and take initiative on this regard. The helpline centre officer also informed the Officer in charge and Chairman to take necessary initiative. The officer of helpline centre informed Upazilla Women Affairs officer and request her to take it seriously. After that Upazillla women affairs officer went to the Sabina’s house and took sign in a statement from Sabina and her father. In this way, Sabina gets relief from early child marriage. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2012). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



11. Prevent the second marriage of father

14th January 2013

Fatema Yasmin Bristy lives in Chadpur, Thana- Shah rasti call to National Helpline Centre and inform that her father is going to get married without her mother’s consent. Officer of helpline centre informed this news to Upazilla Women Affairs Officer over phone. Then she ensured that she will take necessary action to stop the marriage. In the same day UWAO informed that they stopped Bristy’s father’s second wedding. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )









12. Helpline safe housewife

02nd April 2013

Jhorna’s father called to the National Helpline Centre and complained that husband of her daughter physically tortured his daughter at Nangolkot upazilla in Commila. He informs that his son-in-law confined her after torturing. Then the officer of National Helpline Centre contacted with concern OC and he sent the police force to rescue the victim. Finally the police took away her to the Comilla Hospital and ensure they proper legal support. Thus Helpline Centre saved a housewife. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



13. Shanaz parvin was protected from early marriage and sucide

14 May, 2013

In 14/05/2013 Shahnaz Parveen from Potuakhali (sub dis-Golachipa) called to the national helpline centre and said that her family fixed her wedding and she is not ready for that and confined her in a room. Shahnaz also said that she will commit suicide if this marriage will be held. She is studying in class 7. She is 13 years old. After getting the news officer of helpline centre informed this to the one stop crisis cell in Potuakhali and Upazilla Women Affairs Officer. They went to victim’s house and rescue her and took sign in a statement from from her parents. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



14. Aleya was rescued by Helpline Centre

29th August 2013

Ismat Ara Perveen is a student of a college of Pabna. She was fall in love with a diceiver and married him. After 6 months she found the reality of that man and gave him divorce. She left that house and started to live in her father’s house. She continues her study again. In 29 August she was going for her final year viva and in that time her husband and some other people tried to abduct her but they failed because she was inside of the college. Aleya informed this to her aunt. Her aunt informed this to the National Helpline Centre and requested to rescue Aleya. After that this news was informed to OC, ASP, SP. In the afternoon ASP informed that they rescue Aleya and arrested her Husband. Aleya’s aunt was very grateful and thankful to the Helpline Centre.( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



15. Rescued a woman who was confined for dowry

24th October, 2013

Rupom from Chuadanga informed the helpline center that her relative was tortured because of dowry by her in-laws. Her name is Niva. Her father wanted her daughter back and went to that house to bring her daughter. But he was beaten and they confined his daughter. Her father wanted help from national helpline centre. Then the officer of helpline centre contacted with District Women Affairs Officer and OC of that police station. Then Victim’s father went to her daughter’s in-law’s house and rescued her with the help of ward commissioner. Helpline centre contacted with victim’s family again and requested to them if they need any kind of support regarding this issue they can contact with helpline centre. ( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )



16. Khadiza got rid of child marriage

9th December, 2013

An informer called to National helpline centre and informed that a child marriage will be held on 09th December, 2013 at 4.00 pm. The victim’s name is Khadija. Her address is Upazillla: Kalapara. District: Barisal. Knowing the news officer of National Helpline Centre called to the local Upazilla Women affairs officer, Officer in charge (OC) and Local UP Chairman. They went there within a very short time & stopped the child marriage. The parents of Khadija also provided the written commitments that they will make wedding arrangement of their daughter when her age will be 18 or more. Thus Khadija got rid of from child marriage.( National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children (2013). Multisectoral Programme On Violence Against WOmen . Retrieved from National Helpline Centre for Violence against Women and Children website: http://nhc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24 )





5. Research Methodology

For conducting the research we will use Purposive sampling. We will conduct the research in parts. The first part of the research will be carried out through a series of interviews of ( Family person, victim, Senior citizen, Students, Teacher). These interviews will provide a clear understanding of the current situation of Child Marriage and we all also get to know why this problems occur . Interviews will not contain only limited questions.

A questionnaire survey will be conducted with the participation of Girls School/Colleges . This survey will also conducted with those part of the Victim who are students. This survey will give us the data about the publicity and current situation of Child Marriage.

1.    Timeline

Sl.	Activities	Oct 04-20	Oct 21-31	Nov 01-15	Nov 16-30	Dec 01-18	Dec 19-31
1	Interview and survey ( Family person, victim, Senior citizen, Students, Teacher)
2	Preparing the coding sheets
3	Sorting, synthesizing and theorizing the data
4	Data Analysis
5	Writing the first draft
6	Revision
7	Submission and Defense

7. Reference


UNICEF, State of the World’s Children: The Double Dividend of Gender Equality, 2007

2 The World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh 2008

3 UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2006, Bangladesh 2007

4 World Bank, Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh, March 2008

5 National Institute of Population and Research Training, Bangladesh Maternal Health and Maternal Mortality

Survey (BMMS) 2001¸ Dhaka 2003.

6 UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, November 2009

7 ibid

8 Government of Bangladesh, Millennium Development Goals: Bangladesh Progress Report 2008

9 UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2009, Bangladesh 2010

10 National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Bangladesh Demographic and Health

Survey 2007, March 2009

11 Acid Survivors Foundation, Bangladesh

12 UNICEF and BBS, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2009, Bangladesh 2010

13 http://nhc.gov.bd

14 Noorani, Shehzad. “Women and girls in Bangladesh.” unicef.org. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/Women_and_girls_in_Bangladesh.pdf (accessed September 7, 2018).